"X Marks the Spot"

I've long heard about people marking X's for signatures when they couldn't read or write, and while I supposed it was true, I thought it was a bit of a cliché.

But I've just run across it in a 1753 Drouin marriage record for my 1st cousin 8x removed, Scholastique Lemay (b. 1731) to Joseph Bourgoin:

Add 29 Oct 1753 marriage record for Scholastique Lemay and Joseph Bourgoin.

For both of their signatures there's an X with a notation "marque de...".   I've looked at several hundred of these records (probably a few thousand by now), and that's the first time I've encountered this.

What's also strange is that while MOST of the marriage records have SOMEONE signing as a witness, it's not always the husband and wife (which I suppose in part would be if they were illiterate), and sometimes there are no signatures at all, though typically there's at least one by the priest.

Sometimes the space for the signatures take up most of the page.

Canada Needs Women: Love in the 17th Century II: The Filles du Roi

"The Arrival of the French Girls at Québec" (1667).  Watercolor painting by C.W. Jeffreys.

 By the mid-17th century, the colony of New France was established, albeit small with only a population in 1663 of 3,200 people.   In the previous 28 years, over 200 women - the "Filles à Marier" - had been sent from France to provide colonists with suitable brides.   Yet the ratio of single men to available women remained high (about 16 to 1; Jean Talon's estimate in the first census of New France was 719 single men and 45 single women, respectively).   This was in part because of an influx of soldiers sent to New France to fight the Iroquois; even after a peace treaty was signed in 1667 and the regiments returned to France, several hundred soldiers "went native" and now directly competed with the fur trappers and farmers for wives.

In 1663, just when the Filles à Marier immigration stopped, a new program - this time sponsored by Louis XIV - began:  the "Filles du Roi".   The aims were the same - promote colonization by providing suitable brides for New France immigrants with the expectation of promoting marriage and family formation.  Additionally, the success of other New World colonies - particularly those of the English - were a concern; basically France wanted to keep up lest they find themselves penned in from competing interests.

The program was suggested by Jean Talon, the Intendant of New France with the goal of sponsored passage of at least 500 women.   Women between the ages of 12 and 25 were recruited, in collaboration with the Church who would provide references.   At first, most were French "city girls" mostly from Paris - this would be problematic since they would not be well-prepared for frontier life, and as the program progressed, more girls from farming communities were recruited since they were fundamentally a better match for the lives they were to have.

Those in the program were rewarded handsomely by the government.   Not only was their passage paid for, but they also received a dowry (between 50 and 400 livres[1,2] or payment in-kind[3]) and a trousseau.   So, for many of these women, the incentives in terms of potentially improving their station in life definitely competed against the more somber hardships of life in New France, especially since many were orphans.    Nor were most of the recruits from well-to-do families; so like many of the Filles à Marier, their options were they to remain in France were limited: an arranged marriage or life in a convent.   If they weren't one of the eldest daughters, the prospects were likely even more restricted.   Thus, emigration sometimes might've been worth the risks.  

One particular risk was surviving the (approximately two month) journey itself.  In 1663 - the first year of emigration - sixty out of 300 women traveling from La Rochelle to New France died en route!

Some have argued that the Filles du Roi was a way of ridding France (and especially Paris) of "problem women" (read: prostitutes).   This is almost certainly not the case;  in fact, those chosen were held to extremely high moral standards as well as physical standards (life on a farm and more importantly the ability to successfully bear children).  In fact, a few were sent back to France because they were deemed to not meet the necessary standards.   A Madame Bourdon was responsible for overseeing ~150 girls across the Atlantic whose letters mention the difficulty of keeping some of the girls in line!   Only one girl - Catherine Gulchelin - was charged with prostitution in Canada in 1675.  She was found guilty, her two children were adopted by friends, and she was banished from Québec City.  Her husband, Nicolas Bateau, abandoned the family and returned to France.   Catherine apparently was guilty - she had many additional children out of wedlock (although she appears to have been married twice more and in addition cancelled two other marriage contracts).

So, over the next 10 years, approximately 800 women emigrated to New France, on average about 100-150 each year (except in 1666 and 1672 where there were apparently no arrivals).

In terms of marriage contracts, I find conflicting information.   The evidence for the Filles à Marier suggests that they entered marriage contracts before they left France.   However - at least for most of the Filles du Roi - they arrived in New France without prearranged marriages, because the church records show the marriage contracts being signed at the local parish.   (Or could it be that they had unsigned contracts when they left which were formalized upon arrival?)   In any case, it appears that "opting out" of the contract seems to have occurred with greater frequency later in the program (particularly between 1669 and 1671 - the three most active years of immigration).   This might be due to their "financial attractiveness" in terms of their dowry; they'd have considerable power and could decide after arrival and meeting their financé that they could "do better" with someone else.

Marguerite Bourgeoys with Filles du Roi
in Montréal.

In New France, they disembarked at either Montréal, Trois-Rivieres, or Québec.   In Montréal (Ville-Marie) they were taken in by Marguerite Bourgeoys who purchased a large farmhouse in 1668 for lodging the arrivals until they found husbands and moved on.   By 1672, the population of New France had more than doubled to 6,700, and the program was ended, presumably since by this time the population was self-sustaining.   The last 60 immigrants arrived in September 1673.

There are seven Filles du Roi in the family tree:

1. Jeanne Godequin (1649-1727, 8ggm) - arrived 1669 (age: 20), born in Amiens to Jacques Godequin and Jeanne Dupuis.   She entered a marriage contract with Vincent Croteau (1647-1709) on 22 Sep 1669 and married him the same day.   Her dowry was 350 livres (including 50 from the King).  They settled in Saint-Antoine-de-Tille and had 11 children (7 boys, 4 girls).   Vincent was a shoemaker from Dieppe who had arrived in New France in 1665.
    
2. Marguerite Lamain (1656-1714, 8ggm) - arrived 1670 (age: 14), born in Rouen, Normandy. to Jacques Lamain and Marguerite des Haies.  She married 31 year-old Michel Rognon dit Laroche (1639-1684) in Québec on 14 Sep 1670.  They had 7 children starting in 1673 (by which time Marguerite was 17 years old!).  Michel died in 1684; two months later Marguerite remarried Pierre Mercier (1653-1712) who had arrived from the Loire region in France in 1679.  They also had 7 children although most (all?) died in infancy.  
    
3. Marie-Jeanne Gilles (1644-1708) see footnote [4].
   
   
4. Marie-Madeleine Phillippe (1651-1724, 8ggm) - was born in Paris to Nicolas Phillippe and Marie Cirier.   She arrived in Québec on 3 Jul 1668 (age: 17) and quickly married Pierre Tousignant dit Lapointe (1641-1714) a soldier turned farmer.   Over the next 40 years, they lived in various locations owning land, eventually settling in Lotbinière.   She was friends with Michelle Ouinville, also a Fille du Roi (they traveled together), and her eldest daughter Marguerite-Michelle married Ouinville's eldest son (Noël Barabé, a 7th great-grandfather) in Lotbinière in 1687.
   
5. Michelle Ouinville (1640-1700, 8ggm) - born in Paris and arrived in Québec in July 1668 with Marie-Madeleine Phillippe.  She married Nicolas Barabé (1647-1676) on 21 Oct 1668, settled in Lotbinière, and had 6 children (two boys, four girls).  Nicolas died about 1676.  As with many of the Filles du Roi, she quickly remarried, to Michel Lemay dit Poudrier (1631-1685). 
   
   Here the family tree gets a little entangled:  Michel is ALSO a 9th great grandfather from his (first) marriage to Marie Dutost (who herself was a Fille à Marier).   Two of THEIR sons are also great grandparents:  5th son Charles (1669-1733) is an 8th great grandfather, but his older brother (3rd son Ignace) is a 7th great grandfather![5].  (So between the three marriages, there are seven great-grandparents.)
   
6. Marie-Madeleine Normand (1651-1690) - arrived in 1669 (age: 18) and married Alphonse Morin dit Valours (10th great grand uncle), the son of Noél Morin and Hélène des Portes (the first child born in Canada to European settlers), in Feb 1670.   They had 10 children; it appears she died in childbirth (or from complications).
   
7. Catherine de Belleau (1639-1706) - arrived in 1667 (age: 28) and married Jean-Baptiste Morin dit Rochebelle (brother of the husband to Marie-Madeleine Normand listed above).     The circumstances were fortunate - for Catherine.   Jean-Baptiste had been under a marriage contract with another Fille du Roi - Marie-Anne Fermin - but she backed out.  It's unlikely that she didn't think that Jean-Baptiste was a good match; he was - after all - one of the premier families in New France at the time.   More likely, she just didn't like Canada - according to a footnote on the contract dated 17 Nov 1667, she's listed as a passenger on the ship Le Prophète Hosée returning to France.   Catherine's cousin, Marie-Charlotte Depoitiers had arrived in Québec earlier (1659) as a "Fille à Marier" and had married Jean-Baptiste's half brother Joseph Hébert in 1660.

Footnotes:

[1] - There's no direct equivalent between French livres and US dollars.   A very rough estimate would be about $5-10 to the livre.

[2] - Those from more upper-class backgrounds (about 40 women, also called the Filles de Qualité) received larger dowries from their familes - closer to 2,000 livres).

[3] - Usually, the women didn't receive cash and instead got merchandise intended to help them establish themselves in their new household.   One typical example reads as follows:

1. 1 chest
2. 1 taffeta kerchief
3. 1 ribbon for shoes
4. 100 needles
5. 1 comb
6. 1 spool of white thread
7. 1 pair of stockings
8. 1 pair of gloves
9. 1 pair of scissors
10. 2 knives
11. approximately 1000 pins
12. 1 bonnet
13. 4 laces
14. 2 silver livres.

In addition some might receive livestock (chickens, pigs, etc.).

[4] Ancestry.com has her calculated as my 10th ggm through her daughter Anne Fleury (born 1630) which is obviously impossible.   Marie-Jeanne DOES have a daughter Anne (1683-1719) but there's no descendant tree established.   The Anne Fluery born in 1630 is Marie-Jeanne's sister-in-law and is a 9th great grandmother but lived and died in France.   So at best Marie-Jeanne is the wife of a 9th great grand-uncle.

[5] How is that possible?  Basically, the different lines between the two Lemay brothers differ in the number of generations to "get to" me.   If in one line people marry earlier, have children earlier, etc. then over time you can have extra generations within the same time frame compared to a different line who tends to marry later and have children later.   Specifically:

we end up with the common ancestor Alexandre Guimond at one end (a great-great-great grandfather), but in the case of Charles Lemay we take a detour through the Sévigny and Choret family to get to the Lemays back to the common ancestor of Michel Lemay (father to Charles and Ignace).

Canada Needs Women! Love in 17th Cenury New France I: The Filles à Marier

The attraction to New France for most of the initial immigrants was the possibility to obtain great wealth.   At first, many of the people who came to Québec hadn't planned to stay; in particular, the fur traders were migrants and the companies that hired them actually strongly discouraged setting up farms (instead they would get goods from the companies).   As such, the population of Québec only numbered in the hundreds for quite some time.

While some settlers came from France with their entire families, intending to put down roots, most were single men seeking adventure with some sort of potential "career track".   This created a wee problem:  who were they to marry?   Intermarrying with the native tribes (although it did happen) was frowned upon by both sides.   The sex ratio of men to women was about 4:1.

Enter the "Filles à Marier" and the "Filles du Roi"; two programs of what essentially were the 17th century equivalent of "mail-order brides".  In most cases, contracts of marriage would be drawn up, and the women would be shipped to their prospective husbands.

The Filles à Marier

This was the first, smaller (only 262 women), and less-well-known program.  (In my research, I've found that most of the Filles à Marier in my family tree have been mistakenly tagged as "Filles du Roi".)   They emigrated, a few at a time, from France to Québec between 1635 and 1663.   They were in VERY high demand; while the population of Québec was still small, the rate of immigration of Filles à Marier averaged under 10 women per year!

The girls had to be of marriageable age (12 to 45), and not yet married (i.e., they couldn't be traveling to join a husband who had previously emigrated).   Their passage was usually paid by religious groups, merchants with an interest in New France, or private individuals who had to ensure their good conduct.   Other than passage, they received nothing for their enrollment.  (The long-standing rumor has been that they were prostitutes exiled from France; this really wasn't the case.  Most were from farming families, a few were daughters of minor nobles, some had relatives that were already in Québec).

It's not surprising that there wasn't a rush to the docks to go to New France.   At best conditions were harsh: there was little community support - most of the families in New France were subsistence farmers, attacks from the Iroquois were not uncommon, and the climate in winter was harsh.   Outbreaks of smallpox and other diseases occurred, and of course mortality from childbirth was frequent - frightening considering that increasing the local population to support the farming communities was the chief reason for the need of female immigrants!   Add to that, that even the crossing itself was perilous; as many as 10% of the passengers died on trans-Atlantic voyages, where passengers were lumped in with cargo, in particular, livestock destined for New France or to be eaten en route.   Considering that the transit time was on the order of two months, this would NOT have been a pleasant journey!

Why did they come?  Despite the grim circumstances that awaited them in New France, plus the hardship of just getting there, for these girls it was generally a preferred option to the alternatives; being shipped off to a convent, or marrying below their class.     Even in 17th-century France, arranged marriages were still common; here, although they were under contract to be married upon arrival (and not having met their husband-to-be), it wasn't absolutely binding, so if things didn't work out (and sometimes they didn't) they could shop themselves around for a different husband or even make the return trip to France.

Most where success stories:  they married, raised families, and formed the roots of many French-Canadians familes.

In my family tree, I have (so far) identified ten Filles à Marier, eight of whom are blood relatives:

1. Jeanne Roy (1626-1674, 9th great-grand aunt) - married to Jean Milloir in 1651;
2. Madeleine Duteau (1649-1704, 8th great-grand aunt) - younger sister of Marie-Michelle Duteau (also a Fille à Marier), married to Nicolas Leblanc in 1664;
3. Marie-Michelle Duteau (1639-1705, 8th great grandmother) - older sister of Madeleine Duteau, married Michel Lemay (both an 8th and 9th great grandfather, whose second wife was Michelle Ouinville, herself a Filles du Roi, and the widow of Nicolas Barabé also an 8th great grandfather!);
4. Geneviève Gamache (1635-1709, 9th great grandmother) - married to Julien Fortin II in 1652 who was a butcher;
5. Jeanne Bitouset (1636-1707, 9th great grandmother) - married Louis Guimond in 1653, who started the cult of miracles at Saint-Anne-de-Beaupré, and was murdered by the Iroquois;
6. Jacquette Tourault  (1612-1670, 10th great grandmother) - who was the widow of Pierre Jaroussel in France, and was a Fille à Marier along with her daughter, Suzanne.   In New France she married Jacques Previrault in 1653, but was widowed again a month later.  She then married Maurice Arrive;
7. Suzanne Jaroussel (1641-1694, 9th great grandmother) - daughter of Jacquette Jaroussel née Tourault (also a Fille à Marier), she married Pierre Joinault in 1654.   Like her mother's first New France husband, he died shortly after the wedding, and like her mother, remarried, this time to Simon Lereau in 1655;
8. Catherine Méliot  (1645-1699, "non"-wife of 8th great grandfather) - she's not a direct ancestor but has an interesting connection to the family tree.   Upon arrival in New France, she was contracted to marry Jean Routhier, and did in 1662.  He later died in 1677, leaving her with six children.  She then married 21-year old François Fréchet (an 8th great grandfather), but in the space of a month, had the marriage annulled and had married Pierre Bouvier.   (More on the annulment in a later post!)
9. Anne Émard (1627-1700, 9th great grand aunt).  Her sister Madeleine was the wife of Zacharie Cloutier, whose brother Jean is my 9th great grandfather.   (Her sister isn't a Fille à Marier because her marriage took place in France and they emigrated to New France as a couple.)   Her case is interesting because of her husband, Guillaume Cousture who she married in 1649.   Prior to this, Guillaume had been a Jesuit priest for nine years and a carpenter at the Mission of Saint-Marie.   In 1642, he, two other priests and 19 men from the Huron Mission were attacked by the Iroquois.  Cousture shot and killed an Iroquois chief, and was subsequently tortured.
   
   However, because of Iroquois tradition, he was sent to another village and offered to the widow of the warrior he had killed.  She adopted him into the tribe and nursed him back to health.  He used this opportunity to learn the language, culture and beliefs.   Three years later, he returned to Trois-Rivières to negotiate a peace (which lasted only a year), and Fr. Cousture asked to be relieved of his vows in order to marry an Iroquois woman (although it is not clear whether this actually occurred).   He continued - after his marriage to Anne - to work as a diplomat between the French-Canadians and the Iroquois.
10. Marie-Charlotte de Poitiers (1640-1718, wife of 10th great-grand uncle) - she married Joseph Hébert in 1660 after arriving in 1659 (age 19).   Her marriage wasn't a happy one;  after giving birth to a son Joseph in 1661, her husband was killed in an Iroquois attack.   Her cousin Catherine de Belleau was a Fille du Roi and married Joseph's half-brother Alphonse Morin.

After 1663, a more-ambitious program of porting women to New France for the purposes of marriage began, this time with the direct support of the French government:  the Filles du Roi.